Problems with traditional ethnographic film-making as exemplified by Nanook of the North Essay Example

Problems with traditional ethnographic film-making as exemplified by Nanook of the North Essay The film Nanook of the North is a pioneering effort by film-maker Robert Flaherty. Released in 1922 and filmed in the immediately preceding years, the film was a tentative experimentation in two genres – ethnography and documentary. At a time when the written word was the primary mode of information dissemination, Nanook of the North attempted to achieve what an ethnographic book on the Eskimo would have done. When motion picture as we know it today was taking its early steps as a medium of popular culture, Flaherty, who called it a non-fiction film, can be credited to have made the first documentary. Looking back at the ninety years since the release of Nanook of the North, one can see vast improvisations in film-making technique and technology. The addition of synchronized sound would be another cornerstone in the history of films. (Ellis McLane, 2005) As can be expected in this early example/experimentation with narrative film, there are a few obvious problem areas. While nominally adapted to the documentary form, the viewer cannot avoid feeling the enactment of a pre-conceived script. It is as if the film-maker, instead of making himself the invisible observer of unfolding events, seems to have instructed Nanook and his clan to perform specific acts. This is typical of not only early documentaries but also the vast body of ethnographic publishing of the previous century. For example, other post-First World War forays in this genre such as Dziga Vertov’s The Man with the Movie Camera, Walter Ruttmann’s Berlin: Symphony of a City (1927) and John Grierson’s Drifters (1929) all share this common flaw. This is also true of Flaherty’s subsequent film Moana (1926). Flaherty portrays Eskimo and Samoan cultures in a revisionist mode by creating imagined characters, bringing back to life lost cultural prac tices (such as hunting for Walruses using harpoons) and setting the film in an ancient period (conveyed to the audience through use of oil lamps when electricity is easily available). All this goes to show that these early ethnographies were â€Å"done less in the name of art than to salvage elements of the past by portraying them in the filmic equivalent of ‘the ethnographic present’. As a result, Flaherty’s alterations and temporal licenses met considerable disapproval in scholarly circles. He only inflamed passions further by stating, ‘Sometimes you have to lie. One often has to distort a thing to catch its true spirit’.† (Askew, 2006, p.29) We will write a custom essay sample on Problems with traditional ethnographic film-making as exemplified by Nanook of the North specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Problems with traditional ethnographic film-making as exemplified by Nanook of the North specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Problems with traditional ethnographic film-making as exemplified by Nanook of the North specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer There is also a directorial slant that seeks to iterate well-established stereotypes of the natives. This is not only applicable to Nanook and the Native American stock he comes from, but also to all indigenous people under European imperialist purview. For example, similar stereotyping of the natives is evident in British-authored ethnographies in Indian subcontinent, German experience in African colonies, Belgians in the Congo and the French occupation of Indo-China. What is also evident in early film ethnographies are the fixedness in perspective – these films were made by white men for other white men, with a patronizing attitude toward nativities/communities being explored. Further, the primitives were shown to display Western family ideals: â€Å"Like a museum display in which sculpted models of family groups perform â€Å"traditional activities,† Nanook’s family adopts a variety of poses for the camera. These scenes of the picturesque always represent a particular view of family or community, usually with the father as hunter and the mother as nurturer, paralleling Western views of the nuclear family. In the following trading post sequence, Nanook is shown to be ignorant of Western technology†¦.This conceit of the indigenous person who does not understand Western technology allows for voyeuristic pleasure and reassures the viewer of the contrast between the Primitive and the Modern: it ingrains the notion that the people are not really acting.† (Rony, 1996, p.112) Indeed, the patronizing attitude toward the subject is revealed by the extent of staging and acting incorporated in the film. In Nanook of the North, it later emerged that the two female companions to Nanook are not his partners at all, but rather the wives of Robert Flaherty (as qualified by common law provisions of early twentieth century). In the film Nanook Revisited, which was made toward the end of the century, the film crew get to interact with one of Flaherty’s offspring, begotten him by one of the female characters in the earlier film. Such revelations prompt serious questions about the integrity of the project Flaherty had undertaken, where the projected ‘reality’ is far from the actual reality. It is safe to say that the film-maker’s personal involvement in the lives of on-screen characters has not been paralleled in documentary films made in following decades. The lack of authenticity of portrayed indegenous people is learnt from the direct orial choices. For example, Nanook wasn’t the actual name of the male protagonist, but rather it is Allakariallak; the wife and mother of his children Nyla was played by Alice Nuvalinga (one of the wives of Flaherty) alongside the other woman Cunayoo, and Nanook’s son Allegoo’s real name is Phillipoosie. Hence, what is construed dominates what is actual – something that modern documentaries have significantly overcome. In modern ethnographic documentaries, the focus is more pronounced on objective reality as opposed to cinematic appeal. (Griffiths, 2002, p.114) One area of ambiguity in Nanook of the North is the mixing of nature and ethnographic documentary genres in one product. As much as the film is about the life and livelihood of an archetypal clan of the American Arctic, a major portion of the film is dedicated to covering animal life in the region, with walruses, seals, fishes and sledge dogs all getting detailed attention. These passages in the film are comparable to the kind of work David Attenborough had undertaken throughout his illustrious career. But in Attenborough’s case the emphasis was clearly on nature and what transient coverage of human inhabitants takes place is only to provide the requisite backdrop. In Nanook of the North, Flaherty clearly gets carried away by events and phenomena in the Arctic wild that the film ends up giving inadequate screen-time to developing human characters. While Nanook, Nyla and other members of the small family are introduced in brief, the identities of these characters are not pr operly developed. Always preoccupied with the here-and-now, the Eskimo has no time, energy or the inclination to grow his spirituality. (Bird, 1996, p.258) While this is the impression given to the audience, it is not a wholly accurate one. Of course, one has to remember that Robert Flaherty was much more than a film-maker. He was a key member of the early Arctic explorers, whose contribution to the understanding of the region is very important. More than an ethnographer, Flaherty donned additional hats of cartographer, miner, geologist, wildlife photographer and more. â€Å"In the course of four expeditions, financed by Sir William Mackenzie (who â€Å"with his daring imagination, was to Canada what Cecil Rhodes was to Africa†), Robert Flaherty added the Belcher Archipelago to the map of Canada and had an island named after him by the Canadian government. He was, too, the first white man to cross the Ungava Peninsula, known until then only by the Eskimo – whose constant, uncomplaining battle for near survival and whose friendly ways and humor he came not only to admire, bur to love. â€Å" (Lee, 1984, p.38) Hence, the flaws inherent in Flaherty’s early forays into film-making should be seen in the context of his overall contributions and multiple roles played by him. To accuse Flaherty of employing re-enactment, staging and altering in what was supposedly a ‘documentary work’, is a harsh indictment of him. Modern scholars, analysing Nanook of the North retrospectively see such things as persistent phenomenon in the whole history of ethnographic documentary film. For example, it is common practice to make natives perform rituals specially for the camera and settings changed in order to accommodate the film crew. Following Nanook of the North, other ethnographic documentaries of the American North appeared. Prominent among them such as Eskimo (1934) and The Alaskan Eskimo (1953) were full of carefully staged reconstructions under directions from the film-maker. Hence, to single out Flaherty as breaking the integrity of ethnographic film making is unfair. If anyth ing, the blurring of the boundary between ‘fiction’ and ‘documentary’ can be seen as necessary for achieving overall dramatic effect and artistic quality. The success and lasting legacy of the film is a valid proof of this filming philosophy. (Askew, 2006, p.27) Indeed, Nanook of the North was such an influential film in early â€Å"non-fiction† genre, that the methods used in its making, flawed as they might be, have been widely adopted in subsequent projects. For example, the subtitle of Flaherty’s next film Moana: A Romance of the Golden Age indicates that the film-maker was dealing with myth. Due to this perception, the director â€Å"established the other face, a prototype of the documentary†. This precursor to the whole array of documentaries that are released later reveals â€Å"a more popular approach to what sometimes would be called the drama-documentary or docudrama.† A good example of this genre is the Silent Enemy (1930) – a film about the Native Indian tribes of North American tundra as they struggle to stave-off starvation. (McCaffrey Jacobs, 1999, p.217)

pH Levels Differences Between Normal Urine and Diabetic Urine †Human Anatomy Paper

pH Levels Differences Between Normal Urine and Diabetic Urine – Human Anatomy Paper Free Online Research Papers pH Levels Differences Between Normal Urine and Diabetic Urine Human Anatomy Paper Kidneys are bean-shaped organs that lie along the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity (Couch and Burger 2004). The two bean-shaped organs are located in the centers of the excretory system where blood and numerous of types fluid can pass through. A person can survive with only one functioning kidney, but if both kidneys fail, the buildup of toxic wastes and the lack of regulation of blood pressure, pH, and ion concentrations will lead to death if untreated (Campbell et all. 2006). Three experiments were taken with the specific organ, all with different procedures and substances. Experiment two was a dialysis test showing positive and negative reactions for specific substances. Hypothesis for Experiment 2 is stated that substances Albumin and Glucose will be positive reactions, Starch and Sodium chloride will be negative reactions. In Experiment three the involvement of â€Å"Normal Urine† and â€Å"Diabetic Urine† are mixed wit different substances. Hypothesis for Experiment three is the pH would be between 1 and 5 for both â€Å"Normal Urine† and â€Å"Diabetic Urine†, the glucose would be at highest of 100 for both urines, and ketones will be negative reactions for both urines. The first Experiment was the control experiment, the procedures are, One: Fold a piece of filter paper in half, then in half again, and open it to form a con e (Couch and Burger 2004). The filter paper will allow any substance with a molecular weight less than 100 to pass through (Couch and Burger 2004). Two: Place the cone into the funnel and place the funnel over a beaker or Erlenmeyer flask (Couch and Burger 2004). Three: Shake a solution containing a few particles of charcoal (black), copper sulfate (blue), and starch (white) in water, and pour it into the funnel until the mixture nearly reaches the rim of the filter paper (Couch and Burger 2004). Four: Count the number of drops passing through the funnel during the time intervals, and record your results (Couch and Burger 2004). Five: Observe which substances passed through the filter by noting the color of the filtrate (Couch and Burger 2004). To determine if starch passed through the filter, add a few drops of iodine to the filtrate in the beaker or flask (Couch and Burger 2004). A blue-black color indicates the presence of starch (Couch and Burger 2004). Six: Observe the color o f the filter paper to determine which substances did not pass through (Couch and Burger 2004). Experiment two was a dialysis test, procedures are the following, One: Tie off one end of a piece of dialysis tubing that has been soaking in distilled water (Couch and Burger 2004). Be careful not to handle the tubing any more than necessary, and only hold it by the ends (Couch and Burger 2004). Two: Place a prepared solution containing starch, sodium chloride (salt), 5% glucose, and albumin into the bag (Couch and Burger 2004). Three: Tie off the other end of the bag, check for leaks by gently squeezing the bag, then rinse it with distilled water. Immerse the bag into a beaker of distilled water (Couch and Burger 2004). Four: After one hour, test the solution in the beaker for the substances that were put into the dialysis tubing bag and record your results; A. Albumin – put 2 ml of the solution from the beaker into a test tube (Couch and Burger 2004).Add 3 drops of Biuret reagent (Couch and Burger 2004).A positive test is a color change from blue to violet (Couch and Burger 2004). B. Glucose – put 3 ml of the beaker solution and 3 ml of Benedict’s reagent into a test tube (Couch and Burger 2004). Heat in a water bath for about 2-3 minutes (Couch and Burger 2004). A positive test is a change in color from clear blue to cloudy green or yellow-orange (Couch and Burger 2004). C. Starch – put 2 ml of the beaker solution into a test tube and add 4-5 drops of IKI (iodine) solution (Couch and Burger 2004). A positive test is a blue-black color change (Couch and Burger 2004) D. Sodium chloride – put 2 ml of the beaker solution into a test tube and add several drops of 1% silver nitrate (Couch and Burger 2004). A positive test is the formation of a white precipitate (Couch and Burger 2004).Last experiment procedures involve Urine, the procedures are as follows; One: obtain a reagent strip and determine the location of the specific reactions on the strip (Couch and Burger 2004). Examine the chart on the container that indicates the re spective color changes (Couch and Burger 2004). Two: Pour some of the â€Å"Diabetic Urine† into a test tube, making sure that you have enough to completely immerse all of the reagent squares on the strip (Couch and Burger 2004). Dip the strip into the â€Å"urine† and drain it on a paper towel to remove excess solution (Couch and Burger 2004). Three: Read results according to the chart on the container and RECORD your results (Couch and Burger 2004). Six: Repeat this test for â€Å"Normal Urine† (Couch and Burger 2004). Results In Experiment 1, which was the control substance results concluded that at a time of ten seconds the volume of water was 30 drops, substrate in filtrate was starch and substance left in filter was charcoal. At a time of 30 seconds the volume of water was 50 drops, substance in filtrate was starch and copper-sulfate, and the substance left in the filter was charcoal. In 60 seconds time, the volume of water was at 76 drops, substance in filtrate was again starch and copper-sulfate, and the substance left in the filter was charcoal. Last with a time of 120 seconds, volume of water was left at 76 drops, substance in filtrate was again starch and copper-sulfate, and the substance left in the filter was charcoal, all of which is shown on table one In Experiment 2 involving dialysis the results for substances Albumin was a positive reaction, Glucose is a negative reaction, Starch is a negative reaction, and last Sodium chloride is a positive reaction. All these results involving dialysis can be seen in Table 2. Experiment 3 results represent urine tests. For results involving pH as a substance, in â€Å"Normal Urine† the pH is 7, in â€Å"Diabetic Urine† pH is 5. With a substance of glucose â€Å"Normal Urine† is 150, and â€Å"Diabetic Urine† is 500. Last with a substance of Ketone, â€Å"Normal Urine† is a negative reaction, and â€Å"Diabetic Urine† is a negative reaction, all of which can be seen on Table3. Discussion As results were concluded it was clear that Experiment 2 hypothesis stating that substances Albumin and Glucose will be positive reactions and Starch and Sodium chloride will be negative solutions was incorrect in some aspects and in Experiment 3 hypothesis stating the pH would be between 1 and 5 for both â€Å"Normal Urine† and â€Å"Diabetic Urine†, the glucose would be at highest of 100 for both urines, and ketones will be negative reactions for both urines was incorrect. While testing on dialysis in experiment 2 and shown in table 2, as results were posted clearly stated that Albumin and Sodium Chloride were the two substances my hypothesis did not support. What dialysis does for the kidneys is acts like a lifesaver not only for people that have both kidneys failing, but also non-exercisers, the people that have no guide to a healthy life. Furnishing dialysis in the United States to large numbers of patients already in poor health and with limited life e xpectancies has contributed to the highest yearly mortality rate for dialysis patients in the developed world- approximately 24% in 1988 (Hines et al. 1997). For these reasons it is important to know what this does for your kidneys. This also helps me understand why the hypothesis was incorrect by stating that Albumin was a positive reaction and Sodium chloride is a negative reaction. Possible errors that could have occurred in the final result of these two substances that were incorrect may have been improper washing of beaker, also not enough of Albumin and Sodium chloride in the dialysis tubing. Experiment 1 was obvious what the results were going to be when testing charcoal with starch and copper sulfate in our control experiment. No errors were recorded for experiment 1, also results supported hypothesis in stating that charcoal would have been the only substance not allowed to filter through because of more particles and a higher concentration. Involving â€Å"Normal Urine† and â€Å"Diabetic Urine† in Experiment 3 it is said that† Diabetic nephropathy, or diabetic kidney disease, affects 20 to 30 percent of patients with diabetes (Thorp and Micah 2005). While testing both â€Å"Normal Urine† and â€Å"Diabetic Urine†, glucose in the â€Å"Diabetic Urine† and the ph in â€Å"Normal Urine† are what my hypothesis did not support. Stating in the hypothesis about glucose being a high of a 100 for both â€Å"Normal Urine† and â€Å"Diabetic Urine† is something I do not support now that I have done further research o n diabetics. There are no potential errors for the result outcome for Experiment 3. Concluding all results and hypothesis stated, Experiment 2 and 3 are definite factors people of any age should be aware of. For diabetic patients, Experiments 2 and 3 should hit really close to home with their lives, and these substances that they see every day. Diabetic nephropathy presents in its earliest stage with low levels of albumin (microalbuminuria) in the urine (Thorp and Micah 2005). Stating this alone is reason enough for all non diabetics and diabetics of all types to be on the look out for any new experiments. 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Analysis of the Indian telecom industry

Analysis of the Indian telecom industry THE Indian Telecom industry is one of the fastest growing in the world with an average of 18 million subscribers added every month. The launch of newer services and the introduction of smart phones in the last few years. Contrary to other industries,the Indian Telecom industry has shows no signs of recession and has created job opportunities like never before. The total wireless subscriber base was 670.60 million and the broadband subscriber base reached 10.08 million by the end of August 2010(growing at 3 percent every month) .Teledensity has reached 128 percent in the urban markets and 26 percent in the rural markets ,which shows a rapidly increasing trend .Indeed ,telecom is helping to unite India to next level. However ,India ,with the second largest population in the world ,has just 6 percent of its cities are connected via Internet so far. Although, India has seen a telecom revolution in the last two decades in terms of technology and connectivity, much still needs to be achie ved to provide infrastructure connectivity in rural areas..Approximately 72.2 percent of the population of India lives in about 638,000 villages..Around 41.8 percent of the total rural population survives on a meager Rs.447 monthly per-capita consumption expenditure. History of Telecommunication Industry The history of telecommunication industry started with the first public demonstration of Morse’s electric telegraph, Baltimore to Washington in 1844. In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell filed his patent application and the first telephone patent was issued to him on 7th of March. In 1913, telegraph was popular way of communication. AT&T commits to dispose its telegraph stocks and agreed to provide long distance connection to independence telephone system. In 1956, the final judgment limited the Bell System to Common Carrier Communications and Government projects but preserving the long-standing relationships between the manufacturing, researches and operating arms of the Bell Syste m. In this judgment AT&T retained bell laboratories and Western Electric Company. This final judgment brought to a close the justice departments seven -year-old antitrust suit against AT&T and Western Electric which sought separation of the Bell Systems Manufacturing from its operating and research functions. AT&T was still controlling the telecommunication industry. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY . RESEARCH DESIGN The research design is Descriptive studies. Descriptive studies are well structured, they tend to be rigid and its approach cannot be changed every now and then. SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION Sources of secondary data were primarily the Internet , journals , newspaper, annual report. Global Scenario World telecom industry is an uprising industry, proceeding towards a goal of achieving two third of the world’s telecom connections. Over the past few years information and communications technology has changed in a dramatic manner and as a result of that world telecom industry is going to be a booming industry. Substantial economic growth and mounting population enable the rapid growth of this industry. The world telecommunications market is expected to rise at an 11 percent compound annual growth rate at the end of year 2011. The leading telecom companies like AT&T, Vodafone, Verizon, SBC Communications, Bell South, Qwest Communications are trying to take the advantage of this growth. These companies are working on telecommunication fields like broadband technologies, EDGE(Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution) technologies, LAN-WAN inter networking, optical networking, voice over Internet protocol, wireless data service etc.

Approaches to the 'city' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Approaches to the 'city' - Essay Example In one of the poems, cities are described as man’s tight hold on nature. The attitude of the poets reveals that in the eyes of architectural philosophers such as Constant Nieuwenhuys and Le Corbusier cities are a nuisance. To the above men, architecture has lost its way due to the confusion and the lack of uniformity, which has become the hallmark of modern cities. In Constant Nieuwenhuys and Le Corbusier’s theories, there is a relentless quest for cities to regain their lost glory, which to them can only be achieved by enhancing uniformity. The modern day cities are problematic which may be attributable to the state or architecture. Looking back, architecture has given us beautiful buildings such the Westminster Abbey and the tower of Piazza. In addition, architecture has also created beautiful cities such as Venice, Nancy and old Paris. However, it is vital to consider the contextual challenges that architecture is encountering if at all solutions will be coined for the appalling conditions of the modern cities. To begin with, it is vital to pose certain critical queries, which should provide guidance going forwards. Is it practical or realistic for modern architecture to hold on to the ideals that have guided architects in the past? Are the ideals of past architecture relevant in the present day? And if so, which ideals should we embrace? In the past, the most dominant values were simplicity and uniformity (Le Corbusier 1976, 32). One of the dominant characters of cities is the disparity in the individual cells or ho use units, which form the city. Individualism should take an equal share of the blame for the present state of the cities. According to Le Corbusier, there is need to establish certain standards which will guide construction. The emergence of discipline, astuteness and concord are the only factors, which can help the modern city rediscover uniformity, which exemplified past

A Position Paper for the Enhancement of the Strategic Ability of Air Essay

A Position Paper for the Enhancement of the Strategic Ability of Air Asia - Essay Example Following sections presents the strategies and the enhancement proposed accordingly. 1. Air Asia to control its costs and source of funding for purchase of new fleet of aircrafts. Increase of fleets’ strategy. Air Asia wants to continue to be the lowest cost short-haul airline in every market it goes in. In considering this vision, the action required is significant investment in aircrafts, distribution channels, production capacity and working capital. In this situation, there is a need to determine first if Air Asia has the capability to raise funds and its financial worth. Financial resources. Financial worth of Air Asia as of 2009 shows current net assets of RM 511,284 million which is an improvement from its RM 263,085 million current net assets in 2008. It has the ability to raise funds from creditors and shareholder, its debt/equity ratio is 2.61 and a net profit margin of 16.2%. A debt equity ratio is a measure of the company’s financial leverage and indicates w hat proportion of debt and equity the company is using to finance its assets. A high debt ratio means that the company is using a lot of debt in financing its assets as in the case of Air Asia. However, in further analysis, capital intensive industry generally has a high debt ratio of 2 (Investopedia, n.d.) Air Asia has a net cash flow of RM598million, equivalent to $181.2 million (Air Asia.com). Air Asia reports of 21.1% profit after tax margin in Malaysia, 1.8% profit after tax margin in Thailand and 17% profit after tax margin in Indonesia (Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation, 2010). Chart 1 shows the EBITDAR margin and profit after tax margin in 2Q2010 for year 2010l. It will be noted that after deducting... The study analyzed the strategies used in each strategy of Air Asia, had seen its strength as well as weakness in achieving targets. On this, proposals for enhancement have been recommended. On the first position that requires funding for purchase of additional new aircrafts for new routes and replacement of old ones, recommendation is to get funding from long term debt because of tax advantages. Getting funds from outside sources will save the cash flows for internal operations of the company. Second position pertains to inventory management that will require management to maintain an RFID technology along with a perpetual inventory system that will track inventory and supplies of the airline company in its various segments. The third position calls for a study on the cost saving realized by the on line system of booking to properly explain to stakeholders the benefit of the strategy and to outline further enhancements. The fourth proposition is a recommendation for promotions and a dvertising to attract more customers in order to maximize use of airline capacity. The fifth position is the continuous training and skills development of employees as airline business is dependent on skills of employees particularly in aircraft flying and maintenance. This paper makes a conclusion that a position is presented that needs government approval for a patent to protect brand image of Air Asia as the lowest cost airline carrier in the region.

Wind Power Essay -- Wind Power Energy Sources Essays

Wind Power Harnessing the natural power of the wind is by no means a new concept. Asides from sailing, wind power has been utilised for many thousands of years, principally for agricultural purposes. Basic windmills are thought to have been used in Persia (now Iran) as early as the 7th century AD. Their ability to make use of otherwise untapped energy sources without the needs and costs of other alternatives, ensured that they remained the machines of preference in several industries throughout both agricultural and industrial revolutions. Whilst their basic concepts have remained true to the basic origins, technological advances have enabled engineers to adapt the mechanics of the mill to enable a more functional and useable source of power. In the 18th C, engineers developed spring sails (a device incorporating shutters onto the sails) to enable the mill to be run at constant speed during variable wind speeds automatically. The development of the fantail in 1745 also ensured the mills ran in the face of the wind and along with airbrakes meant that the mill could run at its most efficient at all times without the risk of doing itself damage in strong winds. Uses developed into water pumping, wood sawing, papermaking, pressing oil seeds and a variety of grinding uses. The use of wind turbines for generating electricity was pioneered in Denmark late in the 1890s. The concept was made a reality by Poul la Cour (1846-1908) who had originally trained as a meteorologist. He built the world's first electricity generating wind turbine in 1891 and although his project was a success, decided the greatest problem lay in storage of the electricity. As a result he used the electricity from his turbines for electrolysis in order to produce hydrogen for the gas lighting in his school.  ¡Ã‚ §One basic drawback of this scheme was the fact that he had to replace the windows of several school buildings numerous times, as the hydrogen exploded due to small amounts of oxygen in the gas (!) ¡Ã‚ ¨ DWTMA. As technological barriers were worked through, wind turbines became increasingly complicated. One of the greatest developments was the use of aerofoils instead of angled blades. Aerofoils have the benefit of using lift to turn the blades in the same manner as an aircraft ¡Ã‚ ¦s wing rises on an air current. This type of blade replaced the older type, which relied upon drag, t... ...9, www.foe.co.uk Energy without end, Michael Flood, Friends of the Earth, London 1991 Green Futures, Magazine of Forum for the Future, Issues 6 1997- issue 11 1998, London Johnston, Bryan, 'Landscape effects leave wind power up in the air,' Planning 1084, 2.9.94. Milne, Roger, 'Renewables feel the draught,' Planning no. 1095, 18.11.94. Microsoft Encarta 1996 Encyclopaedia, www.msn.com Rothe, David, 'Renewable energy and rural development,' Town and Country Planning, March 1993. Review of the impacts of wind farms and other aerial structures upon birds, J Paul Gill, Mike Townsley & Greg P Mudge, Scottish National Heritage Review no.21, Perth UK, 1996 UK Power 99, McMillan- Scott PLC Publications, Cheshire December 1998 Wood, Peter & Wade-Smith, Richard, 'Welsh decision sets the wind farm scene', Planning 939, October  ¡Ã‚ ¥91. Wind Energy Conservation- from theory to practice- Proceedings of the 19th BWEA Conference (16-18 July  ¡Ã‚ ¦97), Edited by Ray Hunter, The British Wind Energy Association, Mechanical Engineering publications Ltd, London 1997 Wind Energy- Power for a sustainable future, British Wind Energy Association, London 1997, www.bwea.com

Influence of Confucianism on China Essay

Confucianism is a system of philosophy and religious practice that sprouted in China around 500 B. C. E, and which has had a tremendous impact on Chinese culture and politics since. It was created by a social philosopher named Kong-Fu-Tzu, who being convinced of his ability to restore order to the world devised a philosophy of morality and social duty. Unlike other political philosophies of the time such as legalism, Confucius placed importance on proper action through a moral code, not a legal code. This moral code was solidified with the threat of intense shame, both in the eyes of the living and in those of your ancestors who watch over your actions. But in codifying his philosophies in such a manner, he also set his own short-sightedness, misogyny and dated thinking into an immutable morality that plagues the Chinese to this day. It is in this way that any positive characteristics of Confucianism give way to the corruption of politicians and the serious injustice of the concept of filial piety as laid down by Confucius’ disciples. And furthermore, it is difficult to address these issues within the scope of Confucianism because they are the ways of â€Å"ancient wisdom† transmitted by Confucius, and are treated as immutably righteous. So, the injustice of Confucianism and the social disparity it promotes plagued China for millennia even to this day in some respects. Indeed, I believe Confucianism has had on overall negative impact on China. Confucianism, like Hinduism with its Code of Manu, has a hierarchical system that separates peoples into castes ordained by heaven. These castes are slightly less specific than in the aforementioned example, but they are still a very real dynamic in Confucian thought. Each person is considered to have duties to certain people or â€Å"filial piety† (Confucius, 45), a subject must serve his h/er ruler, a child must respect h/er parents, a wife must obey her husband. And though these relationships are reciprocal, as a ruler has a duty also to his subject, they are each organized in regard to a superior to h/er inferior. Rulers are seen as having a â€Å"Mandate from Heaven†, and to disobey your ruler is to bring shame upon yourself and your relatives. So not only was there legal repercussion for disobedience, but also the engrained shame of having disobeyed at all, even if you are being wronged or abused. Besides these stringent class divisions, women are treated as intrinsically inferior to men as a whole, making it exceedingly difficult for Chinese women. Male offspring are extremely important to a family as the Chinese divine heredity through the male parent and a grown son can be considered in breach of his filial piety, and thus shame his family, if he does not give birth to a son. As mentioned earlier, a woman must also obey her husband as part of her filial piety. To do otherwise would be to shame herself and her family. Moreover, a woman’s duty to her family demands that she marry whomever her parents see fit, which makes her beholden to both her parents, and to a man whom she did not choose as her spouse. In the Book of Mencius, it describes women as living through three subordinations, to their fathers as a child, to their husbands as an adult, and to their sons in old age (Lin Yu Tang, 743). All in all, Confucianism served to heighten the struggles of women in an already patriarchal society. Having been introduced to these inequalities in Confucian thought, it may come as little surprise that Confucius described a serious mandate of the state over the individual. Those in such castes as were seen fit to rule over others afforded themselves much power, and little can be done to challenge a hierarchy in which defiance means shame in the eyes of all your ancestors. Subjects owe filial piety to their ruler, and as such a ruler must be righteous in his actions, but is considered the clear superior to the ruled. Should a ruler not fulfill his duties properly, the peasants are still controlled by him. So, while the ruler can break his duties to his subjects and still retain the power to control them, the ruled must risk a great deal in breaking their duties to the tyrant. Thus, the concept of filial piety to ones ruler only serves to embed tyrants, and does not provide any real recourse should a ruler break his own supposed filial piety to the ruled. An interesting example of this sort of filial piety to a ruler can be seen in the Chinese â€Å"Book of Songs†, in which this poem appears in the section set aside for â€Å"folk and peasant songs†: â€Å"To be rejoiced in are ye, noble men, The foundations of the State. To be rejoiced in are ye, noble men; — May your years be myriads and without end! † (Nan-Shan-You-Tai, Poem 172). That such a poem might be considered a folk song seems strange as it seeks only to glorify noblemen. Such is the bias engrained in the poor that the noblemen above them were to be â€Å"rejoiced in†. Another of the most important tents of Confucianism is deference to, and respect for your superiors, especially your parents. Filial piety to ones parents is paramount in Chinese families, and there are many stories of children in ancient times that went to absurd measures to please their parents. Some of the known ways that children have been made to bend to their parents will borders on utter child abuse. One story speaks of a child named Min Tzu-chien who let himself nearly freeze to death to appease a cruel stepmother (Brians, para. 4). Another relates the tale of Wu Meng, a boy in the Chin Dynasty who purportedly let his belly be feasted upon by mosquitoes numbering in the hundreds so they would not feed on his parents (Brians, para. 5). A particularly telling tale of this kind is the story of Kuo Chi, who lived during the Han Dynasty, was very poor, and who cared for his mother and three year old son. He could not feed either fully, and his mother often gave a portion of her food to her grandson so he would not hunger. Kuo Chi having seen this, told his wife â€Å"It would be better if we buried our son. We can always get another son, but it is impossible to get another Mother. † Kuo Chi then dug a grave in which to bury his son, but upon completing it he found a pot of gold which read â€Å"Officials cannot take it, people may not steal it† (Brians, para. 6-7). Kuo Chi was rewarded for his willingness to sacrifice the life of his inferior duty (his son) in favor of his greater duty to his mother. While the level of truth in such ancient stories is suspect, they represent the way in which Confucius’ idea of filial piety could be bent to allow for horrible injustice and child abuse. Confucian disciples also instituted a National Testing System for political office. The purpose of which was to insure that rulers were chosen on merit and not on lineage. But though Confucius advised a thorough education regardless of class, it was simply not the case in much of China. Learning was important, but the poor simply could not afford to give their children the full range of education necessary to succeed in the examinations. China became a watered-down sort of Oligarchy where only those wealthy enough to give their children a thorough education could hope to see their children into public office, and disparity between castes increased because of it. Meritocracy can not exist where equality of opportunity does not. All of these things can be considered unjust, unfair and even despicable in some instances, but the notion of changing them is difficult while maintaining Confucianism because like most philosophy rooted in spirituality, to deny the prophet often is seen as denying heaven. The traditional Chinese were severely limited by Confucianism because they believed any deviance from the righteous way of life prescribed by Confucius could lead to great shame and sorrow, to complacency and stagnation. And yet, Confucianism has continued in China even to modern times, though the Communist Government seeks to be rid of it. New troubles have been loosed because of Confucianism including but not limited to â€Å"sex specific infanticide† in which female babies are aborted in favor of male children because the Chinese Government has placed a cap on the number of children a family can have. The strong preference for male children, fed by Confucianism, is directly responsible for this horror. What new problems these outmoded ways of thinking, thousands of years dated, will bring up no one can tell. But as long as the tenets of Confucianism meet transgressors with shame and derision, it will no doubt continue to have a negative impact on China as a whole. Works Cited Confucius and Jennings, William trans. The Confucian Analects. New York: George Routledge and Sons, Limited, 1895. Waley, Arthur trans. Book of Songs: The Ancient Chinese Classic of Poetry. New York: Grove Press, 1996. Yutang, Lin ed. The Wisdom of India and China. New York: Random House, 1942. Brians, Paul. â€Å"Examples of Filial Piety (14th Century CE). † Reading About the World, Volume I. 1998. Washington State University. 23 Mar. 2006, .